API Pagination

Pagination looks trivial until data changes underneath the reader. Offset pagination silently skips or duplicates rows when inserts land mid-iteration; cursor pagination survives churn but demands a stable sort key and an opaque token contract. This skill covers both sides: designing the API and consuming one correctly. Deep detail lives in references/; copy-paste material in examples/; a runnable cursor round-trip check in scripts/.

Decision: offset vs cursor

Situation	Use
Admin tables, small datasets, "jump to page 7" required	Offset (LIMIT/OFFSET)
Feeds, sync endpoints, anything users scroll	Cursor (keyset)
Data changes while clients iterate	Cursor — offset will skip/duplicate
Deep pages (offset > ~10k rows)	Cursor — OFFSET n scans and discards n rows

Offset's failure mode is correctness, not just speed: a row inserted before your current position shifts everything, so page 3 re-shows an item from page 2 (duplicate) or swallows one (skip).

Keyset mechanics (the part people get wrong)

The sort key must be unique and immutable. created_at alone is not unique — two rows with the same timestamp make the cursor ambiguous and rows vanish. Always add a tiebreaker:

-- WHERE clause for "next page after (2026-07-01T12:00:00Z, id 4711)" descending
SELECT * FROM items
WHERE (created_at, id) < ('2026-07-01T12:00:00Z', 4711)
ORDER BY created_at DESC, id DESC
LIMIT 51;  -- page_size + 1 to detect has_more without COUNT(*)

Fetch page_size + 1 rows: if you get 51, there is a next page and the 51st row's key becomes the next cursor. This avoids COUNT(*), which on large tables costs more than the page itself (see references/counting-and-totals.md).

Cursor token contract

Cursors are opaque to clients — never let them parse or build one. Encode the keyset values plus the sort direction, base64url it, and (for public APIs) HMAC it so tampering is detectable. Include a version byte so you can change the encoding later. Full recipe: references/cursor-encoding.md; runnable round-trip: scripts/check-cursor.mjs.

Response envelope

{
  "data": [ ... ],
  "page_info": { "has_more": true, "next_cursor": "djEuMj..." }
}

Rules: next_cursor is absent (not empty-string) on the last page; page size is capped server-side (a limit=10000 request gets the cap, documented, not an error); the default page size appears in the docs and never changes silently. Consumer-side iteration rules — retries, cursor expiry, resumption — live in references/consuming-pages.md.

Pitfalls

• Mutable sort keys (updated_at) — rows teleport across pages as they update. Sort on immutable columns or accept re-delivery and dedupe client-side.
• Cursor built from row position instead of row values — it is offset with extra steps and inherits every offset bug.
• COUNT(*) on every page — the count is stale by the time the client renders it; provide totals on a separate, cacheable endpoint if the product truly needs them.
• Breaking cursor encoding on deploy — clients hold cursors across releases; version the token.
• Missing composite index — keyset needs an index on exactly (created_at, id) in sort order, or every page is a scan.

Verification

Run node scripts/check-cursor.mjs — encodes, decodes, tampers, and versions a cursor and asserts every property above. For the SQL side, examples/keyset-queries.sql includes an EXPLAIN you can run to confirm the index is used. Pairs with rest-api-design (envelopes, limits) and sql-index-tuning (composite indexes).